Utar: Conjugation of verbs
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This article describes the bases for verb conjugation and mentions important rules of phonetics.
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 13 Feb 2023, 13:56.
[comments] utarainuprefixaffixsuffixverbnounadjectivegrammarconjugation Introduction
The verb is one of the most important parts of speech in
Utar. A verb is used to describe the qualities of an object or its action. The conjugation of Utar verbs is related to the Ainu language. The pronouns do not exist in the Utar language. Instead, verbs are joined with different affixes that indicate the subject or object. Here, for clarity, we will separate affixes from verbs with " = ", but in writing everything is written in one word.
We would like to make a quick note: in some of the examples that follow, the letters may vary depending on their position.
- Firstly, if a vowel is followed by another vowel, the second vowel is iotized, that is, the sound [j] appears between the first and the second vowel. Thus, if we attach the affix ху- (xu-) to the verb эраман (eraman), we have хуераман (xujeraman).
- Secondly, if another н (n) appears after the letter н (n), then нн (nn) becomes ӈ (ŋ) and is pronounced as [ŋ]. Thus, if we attach the affix эн- (en-) to the verb нухар (nuxar), we have эӈухар (eŋuxar).
- Thirdly, if the letter х stands between two vowels, it is automatically transformed into ғ (ꜧ). Thus, if we attach the affix ху- (xu-) to the verb ху (xu), we have хуғу (xuꜧu).
Place of verbs in a sentence
A simple Utar sentence starts with a subject, followed by an object and finally a verb, i.e. Utar is an SOV language.
Утхун хиски хай.
Utxun xiski xaj.
man cat carry.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
A man carries a cat.
The phrase begins with the subject "man", followed by the object "cat", and the phrase ends with the verb "to carry".
Plural of a verb
Most Utar verbs have the same forms in all the numbers, which means you have to look at the affixes to understand the number of the verbs. If they don't help, you need to pay attention to the context of the phrase.
However, there are a few exceptions in the Utar language. These verbs change in the plural. There are 22 of these verbs, here is a list:
- to accompany: тура (tura) → турапа (turapa)
- to be (condition, state): не (ně) → орай (oraj)
- to be, exist: ан (an) → оғай (oꜧaj)
- to bend: хомо (xomo) → хомпа (xompa)
- to carry: хай (xaj) → хайпа (xajpa)
- to come: эһ (eh) → архи (arxi)
- to drink: ху (xu) → хупа (xupa)
- to eat: э (e) → эпа (epa)
- to educate: ресу (rěsu) → респа (rěspa)
- to enter: аһун (ahun) → аһуп (ahup)
- to exit: асин (asin) → асип (asip)
- to give: хоре (xorě) → хорепа (xorěpa)
- to go: арпа (arpa) → пае (paje)
- to have: хор (xor) → хорпа (xorpa)
- to hear: ну (nu) → нупа (nupa)
- to kill: райке (rajkě) → роӈу (roŋu)
- to know: эраман (eraman) → эрамоға (eramoꜧa)
- to live (somewhere): һорарь (horar') → һорарпа (һorarpa)
- to say: е (je) → епа (jepa)
- to speak (a language): таһ (tah) → таһпа (tahpa)
- to stretch: турь (tur') → турпа (turpa)
- to tie: хоте (xotě) → хотпа (xotpa)
Careful, there is one nuance. If the verb is intransitive, the verb agrees with the subject:
Хуитаһ.
Xu=jitah.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-speak.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
I speak.
Here the subject is in the singular, so the verb is also in the singular.
Ытаhпаяс.
Ytahpa=jas.
speak.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)
We speak.
Here the subject is in the plural, so the verb is also in the plural.
However, if the verb is transitive, that is, if there is an object in the phrase, the verb-exception agrees with the object and not with the subject.
Хуецыроӈу
Xu=jecy=roŋu
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-2PSecond person plural (person)
addressee (plural).OBJObject (argument)-kill.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
I am killing you (plural).
In this sentence, the subject is in the singular and the object is in the plural. The verb is then in the plural, as is the object. Therefore, in this phrase it is not райке (rajkě), but роӈу (roŋu).
Order of affixes
Each affix, whether subject or object, is placed either at the beginning or the end of the verb. Each affix has its own position, which simply needs to be learnt. You will learn the position of each affix when we talk about persons.
But if, for example, you use two affixes, subject and object, and they are both at the beginning of the verb, remember that the subject affix always comes before the object affix. Let's take an example we have taken before:
Хуецыроӈу
Xu=jecy=roŋu
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-2PSecond person plural (person)
addressee (plural).OBJObject (argument)-kill.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
I am killing you (plural).
In this phrase, xu- (subject) comes first, followed by jecy- (object).
3 person
The best place to start is with the third person, because in the third person singular and plural the affix is null, i.e. we don't put anything. This applies to both the subject and object affixes. The examples will use the symbol Ø to indicate the null affix.
Пон.
Ø=pon.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-be small
He/she/it/they is/are small.
Нуғар.
Ø=Ø=nuꜧar.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.OBJObject (argument)-see
He/she/it/they see(s) him/her/it/them
As you can see, in the third person it is very difficult to determine the number of a verb, so you can only determine the number by looking at the context.
However, using verbs-exceptions, you can specify the singular or the plural. For example:
Ан.
Ø=an.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-exist.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
He/she/it exists.
Оғай.
Ø=oꜧaj.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-exist.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
They exist.
1 person singular
There are two affixes for the first person singular, one used for the subject and one for the object. The affix used for the subject is ху- (xu-) and for the object is эн- (en-).
Хуғуӈэ.
Xu=ꜧuŋe.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-be black
I am black.
Эӈуғар.
Ø=en=guꜧar.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.OBJObject (argument)-see
He/she/it/they sees(s) me.
1 person plural
There are three affixes for the first person plural, of which two are used for the subject and one for the object. In the case of the subject, цы- (cy-) is used only for transitive verbs, and -ас (-as) is used only for intransitive verbs.
Матутар цыне.
Matutar cy=ně.
woman.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)-be
We (exclusive) are women.
Понас.
Pon=as.
be small-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)
We (exclusive) are small.
There is only one affix for the object, ун- (un-).
Уӈупа.
Ø=un=gupa.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).OBJObject (argument)-hear.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
He/she/it/they hear(s) us (exclusive).
Careful, this person is only used in the sense of "we" without the listener. If you want to include the listener as well, it is recommended to use the 4th person (although colloquially the 1 person plural is sometimes used for inclusive as well, probably under the influence of Russian, which is widely spoken among the Utars)
2 person singular
There is only one affix for the second person singular, э- (e-), which marks both subject and object.
Эераман.
E=Ø=jeraman.
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).SUBSubject (argument)-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.OBJObject (argument)-know.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
You (singular) know him/her/it.
Эераман.
Ø=e=jeraman.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).OBJObject (argument)-knowSGSingular (number)
one countable entity.
He/she/it/they know(s) you (singular).
As you may have noticed, because the affix for subject and object are identical, identical phrases appear which can be interpreted in different ways. In this case, the context is needed to understand the phrase.
2 person plural
Like the singular, the plural has only one affix, эцы- (ecy-).
Эцыһуре.
Ecy=hurě.
2PSecond person plural (person)
addressee (plural).SUBSubject (argument)-be red
You (plural) are red.
Хуецыроӈу.
Xu=jecy=roŋu.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-2PSecond person plural (person)
addressee (plural).OBJObject (argument)-kill.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
I am killing you (plural).
4 person
As mentioned earlier, the 4 person is used for the inclusive 1st person plural. There are two affixes for the subject. The first, а-, is used for transitive verbs and the second, -ан (-an), is used for intransitive ones.
Матутар ане.
Matutar a=ně.
woman.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few 4Fourth person (person)
obviative, not present.SUBSubject (argument)-be
We (inclusive) are women.
Понан.
Pon=an.
be small-4Fourth person (person)
obviative, not present.SUBSubject (argument)
We (inclusive) are small.
There is only one affix for the object, ын- (yn-).
Ыӈупа.
Ø=yn=gupa.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-4Fourth person (person)
obviative, not present.OBJObject (argument)-hear.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
He/she/it/they hear(s) us (inclusive).
The 4 person is also used for general statements.
Хреп ае.
Xrěp a=je.
bread.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity 4Fourth person (person)
obviative, not present.SUBSubject (argument)-eat.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
Bred is usually eaten.
Transitive to intransitive affix
In Utar, verbs are divided into two groups: transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs cannot be intransitive, i.e. a transitive verb has an object by default. For example:
Цығу.
Cy=Ø=ꜧu.
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.OBJObject (argument)-drink.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
We drink it.
Even if we don't specify what we are drinking, this verb implies by default that we are drinking some kind of liquid. But what if we just want to say that we are performing the action of drinking? It's very simple. There is a prefix ы- (y-) for such moments.
Ығу.
Ø=y=ꜧu.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.SUBSubject (argument)-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-drink.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
He/she/it drinks.
Цыиғупа.
Cy=ji=ꜧupa.
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-drink.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
We drink.
This prefix can turn absolutely any transitive verb into a non-transitive one. If this prefix is added, it must be remembered that the verb-exception agrees with the subject, as the object simply does not exist.
Reflexive prefix
In Utar, the subject and the object cannot be the same person (except for the 3rd person). So you cannot say, for example, "I educate me". Even in English you can't say that, you have to use the pronoun "myself". What about in Utar? Utar has a special reflexive prefix, я- (ja-), which replaces the object prefix. This prefix only works with transitive verbs.
Хуяресу.
Xu=ja=rěsu.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself-educate.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
I educate myself.
If you add this prefix, remember that the subject verb agrees with the subject, as the object is essentially the same number as the subject.
Reciprocal prefix
There is also the prefix у- (u-), which is similar to the English pronoun "each other".
Цыюроӈу.
Cy=ju=roŋu.
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).SUBSubject (argument)-RECPReciprocal (valency)
arguments act on each other-kill.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
We kill each other.
Since "each other" implies a subject in the plural, this prefix is only used if the subject is in the plural. Consequently, verbs-exceptions will always be in the plural.
Verb to noun affixes
There are several ways to transform a verb into a noun. The affix -пе/-п (-p/-pě) transforms a verb into a certain thing that has the qualities of that verb. The affix -пе (-pě) is placed if the verb ends in a consonant, and -п (-p) is placed if the verb ends in a vowel. For instance пороп (porop) means "big thing" and понпе (ponpě) means 'small thing'. Note that if a verb-exception is used as the base, the verb in the singular should be taken as the base. To say that there is more than one thing, you need only add -ху (-xu), the usual plural ending for nouns. For example, поропху (poropxu) means "big things".
The verb can also be transformed into an abstract concept representing, for example, the action of that verb. This can be done by using the affix -ахь/-хь (-ax'/-x'). The affix -ахь (-ax') is placed if the verb ends in a consonant, and -хь (-x') is placed if the verb ends in a vowel. For example, пирха (pirxa) means "to be good" and пирхахь (pirxax') means "goodness". Careful, if the verb ends in -һ, the -һ disappears and the affix becomes -ӄы (-qy).
It should also be remembered that verbs can be put before nouns so that they become a kind of "adjective" for the noun (Don't forget that there are no adjectives in the Utar language and verbs cannot be used as full-fledged adjectives). For example, поро-утхун (poro-utxun) means "big man" and хуӈэ-цырь (huŋe-cyr') means "black bird". Some verbs are fused with nouns (the dash between the two words disappears and the words become one noun), resulting in nouns such as porojur пороюр (porojur). This word is fused to mean "continent", but if we write it with a dash, поро-ур (poro-ur), it means "large island". ✎ Edit Article ✖ Delete Article
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