Measure words and pronouns
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three whats of fish
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[comments] lgngrammarpronouns Like Chinese and Thai, Langian requires measure words or classifiers be used with nouns when using numbers or determiners. For anyone unfamiliar with these sorts of languages, basically Langian makes no distinction between mass nouns and countable nouns. For some words (those that one might expect to be mass nouns in a language that makes that distinction), a unit of measurement can be used in this role but for most nouns, the measure word holds no distinct meaning beyond being the classifier for certain types of nouns.
While measure words do not always accompany nouns (proper nouns rarely take them; speaking in general terms or about a habitual activity does not require them), they are used frequently. They follow both explicit numbers and general quantitative terms (such as "a few", "most", etc.) as well as the determiners /ny/ (this; near the speaker), /βa/ (that; near the listener), /ʔy/ (this; in the vicinity of both listener and speaker), /ʔä/ (that; away from both), and /jɛ/ (which, what). Adjectives and relative clauses follow the measure word but precede the main noun, meaning that relative clauses are embedded in the noun clause they modify.
If the noun is understood from context, it is common, especially in conversation or informal writing, to drop the main noun. Since the measure word, rather than the noun, declines to indicate case (where applicable), little information is lost this way. Arguably, one could consider them pronouns, since Langian's pronouns act in much the same way as a measure word without an explicit noun and measure words themselves are often used as third person pronouns since Langian does not have one otherwise.
Some of the cases in Langian (LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc, ANDAndative (case)
towards, ELAElative (case)
'out of, from', INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case)
'with' (instrument and/or company) and TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.)) arguably convert them to adpositions. These cases might be used on their own or with specific other words acting like adjectives to cover different meanings. These constructions are fairly idiomatic.
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc (z- or ze-), on it's own means at or in (e.g. zao hanŕoi /ʒɑo ʁɑnɻoi/, at home, in the house)
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + ĺe /ɭɜ/ (shell): outside (e.g. zao ĺe hanŕoi /ʒɑo ɭɜ ʁɑnɻoi/, outside the house)
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + źo /ʐo/ (surface, top): above, over, on (e.g. zao źo hanŕoi /ʒɑo ʐo ʁɑnɻoi/, above the house)
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + wei /wɛi/ (floor, bottom): under, below, beneath
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + sol /zɤl/ (face, front of the body): in front of
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + źon /ʐon/ (back of the body): behind, to the back of
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + niz /nɪʒ/ (side): next to, between
LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc + moń /moɳ/ (circle): around
Many langian verbs do not specify the direction of the motion or transaction, which is instead distinguished through ANDAndative (case)
towards (r- or ri-) and ELAElative (case)
'out of, from' (g- or go-).
For example, compare the following two sentences:
lo riloa ŕoa ŕe dini bisan ĺoa
/lɤ ɾɪlɤa ɻoa ɻɜ dɪni bɪzan ɭoa/
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I ANDAndative (case)
towards-5Fifth person (person)
indefinite or generic; one, "they" say that pair CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns glove give do.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
I gave someone a pair of gloves.
lo goloa ŕoa ŕe dini bisan ĺoa
/lɤ ɢɤlɤa ɻoa ɻɜ dɪni bɪzan ɭoa/
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I ELAElative (case)
'out of, from'-5Fifth person (person)
indefinite or generic; one, "they" say that pair CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns glove receive do.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
I received a pair of gloves from someone.
There are a few other constructions, most commonly used when giving directions.
ANDAndative (case)
towards/ELAElative (case)
'out of, from' + źon /ʐon/: beyond, further
ANDAndative (case)
towards/ELAElative (case)
'out of, from' + sol /zɤl/: nearer/closer to
ANDAndative (case)
towards/ELAElative (case)
'out of, from' + se /zɛ/: through
TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) (on-) on its own has two different uses. Used with a specific time (usually with reź /ɾɛʐ/), it means at that time (or on a specific day). Combined with other phrases, it means "when".
TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) + sol /zɤl/: before, earlier
TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) + źon /ʐon/: after, later
TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) + se /zɛ/: while, during
Relatives times are mostly set expressions that use this form with “reź”, such as the following:
onreź niz /ʔɤnɾɛʐ nɪʒ/: soon
je (what/which) onreź /jɛ ʔɤnɾɛʐ/: when
ta (only) onreź /ɖä ʔɤnɾɛʐ/: once (at one time)
zi (minus) onreź /ʒi ʔɤnɾɛʐ/: never
INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case)
'with' (instrument and/or company) (im-) on its own is basically equivalent to English “with”.
zi + INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case)
'with' (instrument and/or company): without
INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case)
'with' (instrument and/or company) + ñuan (pleasant, pleasing): for (someone’s benefit, for the purpose of)
Reflexives are formed by putting the measure word for the subject in the elative case and using that same measure word in the andative case directly preceding the verb. For example:
golo ŕoa ŕe dini rilo bisan ĺoa.
ELAElative (case)
'out of, from'-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I pair CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns glove ANDAndative (case)
towards-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I gave do.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
I gave myself a pair of gloves.
Reciprocals follow a similar construction. However, to distinguish between reciprocals and reflexives with a compound subject, the subject is split into two noun phrases, one in the elative case and one in the andative case. These cases are then reversed before the verb.
golo ritie ŕoa ŕe dini rilo gotie bisan ĺoa.
ELAElative (case)
'out of, from'-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I ANDAndative (case)
towards-2Second person (person)
addressee (you) pair CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns glove ANDAndative (case)
towards-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I ELAElative (case)
'out of, from'-2Second person (person)
addressee (you) give do.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
You and I gave each other a pair of gloves.
Possessive constructions in Langian are a little unusual and are probably the situation in which measure words act the most like pronouns. First, possessive pronouns themselves take the same GENGenitive (case)
possessive form as other measure words (-ŕ, or -ŕu when the measure word ends in a consonant). However, they replace the usual measure word for whatever noun the person possesses. For example, if I were to speak of "my two brothers", I would refer to them as:
soŕ loŕ voźei
/zoɻ loɻ βoʐɜi/
two 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I-GENGenitive (case)
possessive brother
And not:
*loŕ soŕ lue voźei
/loɻ zoɻ lɯɛ βoʐɜi/
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I-GENGenitive (case)
possessive two CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns brother
Simple enough. When both the possessor and possession are nouns rather than pronouns, the possessor still takes its usual measure word, followed by the possession accompanied by the measure word the possessing noun would usually take in the GENGenitive (case)
possessive form. (However, if it is already apparent from context, the initial noun phrase might be dropped in its entirety.)
For example:
va wen ŕau wenŕu ŕań wütin aŕu
/βa wɛn ɻäɯ wɛnɻu ɻäɳ wyɖɪn ʔäɻu/
that CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns cat CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns-GENGenitive (case)
possessive eye blue be.PRESPresent tense (tense)
current.5Fifth person (person)
indefinite or generic; one, "they" say that
That cat's eyes are blue.
Or if we were already talking about a specific cat, just:
va wenŕu ŕań wütin aŕu
/βa wɛnɻu ɻäɳ wyɖɪn ʔäɻu/
that CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns-GENGenitive (case)
possessive eye blue be.PRESPresent tense (tense)
current.5Fifth person (person)
indefinite or generic; one, "they" say that
The cat's eyes are blue.
An (as of yet incomplete) list of Langian measure words and what types of nouns they refer to:
ion /ʔiɤn/: measure word for fish, especially scaled fish
joa /jɤa/: measure word for eels, water snakes, turtles and tortoises
jün /jyn/: measure word for frogs and toads
ni /ni/: measure word for most reptiles and some amphibians; also used for the native species of Langian
mib /mɪb/: measure word for non-flying insects, snails, spiders, etc.
vi /βi/: measure word for flying insects, moths, butterflies, etc.
gia /ɢia/: measure word for small birds and bats
gie /ɢiɛ/: measure word for birds of prey and other large, flying birds
vau /βaɯ/: measure word for flightless birds, including one of the sapient species in-setting
to /ɖo/: measure word for horse and horse-like animals (deer, zebras, elk, etc.)
wen /wɛn/: measure word for canines and felines
ia /ʔia/: measure word for bears and some other large animals
muñ /mɯɴ/: measure word for oxen/cattle and some other large land animals
uo /ʔɯɤ/: measure word for rabbits and hares and other mammals of similar size
señ /zɛɴ/: measure word for small rodents, like mice, rats, squirrels, and chipmunks
lue /lɯɛ/: measure word for bipedal mammals, including two of the sapient species in-setting
ŕüa /ɻuɤ/: generic measure word for living things
ha /ʁɑ/: measure word for non-fruit-bearing trees, including one of the sapient species in-setting
ot /ʔoɖ/: measure word for fruit-bearing trees
üe ʔyɛ/: measure word for shrubbery
źie /ʐiɛ/: measure word for perennial flowering plants, esp. wild flowers
io /ʔiɤ/: annual flowering plants and herbs
ri /ɾi/: measure word for aquatic plants, kelp and seaweed
no /nɤ/: measure word for reeds, grasses, and bamboo
jom /jɤm/: measure word for ferns and mosses
nio /niɤ/: measure word for fungus, oysters, urchins, coral, and small stones
sia /zia/: measure word for orchids and many plants that grow from bulbs (like tulips, daffodils, etc.)
go /ɢɤ/: generic measure word for non-living objects; used for one of the sapient species in-setting
ji /ji/: measure word for long, thin objects, especially things that can be of indeterminate length (e.g. ribbon, thread, robe, belts, bandages)
ei /ʔɛi/: measure word for drinks; cup or mug
eb /ʔɛb/: measure word for flat, circular objects (bowls, plates, coins, etc.)
av /ʔäβ/: measure word for spherical objects (many types of fruit, balls, globes, balloons, etc.)
ian /ʔian/: measure word for long, flat objects like cloth, sheets of paper, maps, tapestries, and certain articles of clothing (shawls, cloaks, etc.)
ŕe /ɻɜ/: measure word for small articles of clothing, like gloves, hats, shoes, etc.
ah /ʔäʁ/: measure word for larger articles of clothing like robes/dresses, shirts, pants, skirts, etc.
bin /bɪn/: measure word for outerwear: cloaks, coats, robes
iu /ʔiɯ/: measure word for written documents (books, pamphlets, letters, etc.)
aŕ /ʔäɻ/: measure word for small, cylindrical objects, like pens, brushes, pipes
aum /ʔäɯm/: measure word for larger cylindrical objects, like pillars, poles, and pieces of lumber
an /ʔän/: measure word for box-like objects, actual boxes and crates, bricks, chests, etc.
au /ʔäɯ/: measure word for non-box-like containers (barrels, urns, vases, pots, bags, etc.)
es /ʔɛz/: measure word for small blades and similarly shaped things (knives, daggers, leaves, letter openers, scalpels, etc.)
ao /ʔɑo/: measure word for buildings and rooms
jon /jɤn/: measure word for anatomical terms
om /ʔɤm/: measure word for some geographical features (mountains, hills, cliffs, valleys, etc.)
sue /zɯɛ/: measure word for some geographical features (rivers, roads, wind, currents, waves, etc.)
düm /dym/: measure word for complex tools and machines
hau /ʁɑɯ/: generic measure word for abstract concepts (ideas, dreams, feelings, etc.)
ŕań ɻäɳ/: measure word for people
aom /ʔɑom/: measure word for emotional states
ou /ʔɤɯ/: measure word for political entities (states, countries, provinces)
reź /ɾɛʐ/: measure word for periods of time
hie /ʁiɛ/: measure word for spirits, ghosts, gods, etc.; beings that are more ethereal than physical
hiu /ʁiɯ/: measure word for poems, songs, stories, etc. (and subdivisions thereof)
roa /ɾɤa/: measure word for professions, titles, and relational terms
iul /ʔiɯl/: measure word for groups of people, organizations, and some professional terms
lib /lɪb/: lit. drop; a unit of measurement for liquids
hi /ʁi/: a unit of measurement, usually for dry foodstuffs (this is volume-based)
añ /ʔäɴ/: smallest unit of measurement for weight; about 4 grams
eid /ʔɛid/: a measurement of weight; 16 añ
bieŕ /biɛɻ/: a measurement of weight; 256 añ
na /na/: a unit of measurement for area, about the size of a single bedroll, used to measure floor space, gardens, flowerbeds
gams /ɢɑmz/: a unit of measurement for area; from the word for "field"
jan /jän/: smallest unit of measurement for distance, based on the size of the dorsal fins on a particular variety of fish
won /wɤn/: middle unit of measurement for distance; 128 jan
tim /ɖɪm/: unit of measurement for distance; 256 won
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