The care and feeding of verbs: view article

Subject
There is a lot of information that can be encoded in verbs, but at a bare minimum, every verb must be inflected for tense, as well as the person and number of the verb's subject. A single suffix can convey all three of those pieces of information. These suffixes are all spelled out in the Grammar table for subject suffixes.

You may notice that only the first-person singular and third-person animate suffixes have distinct forms for every tense. The others conflate tenses to some extent so that, for example, a verb conjugated for the third-person inanimate singular will have the same form whether it takes place in the present or in the near past. Also, although the verb conjugates based on the animacy of the third person, it is not affected by the physical gender of the subject (male or female).

A few examples, from the verb stem ñàal, to be pretty:
Ñàaltan júú. The flower is pretty.
be_pretty-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense) flower
Ñàalçi wuduu. You were pretty yesterday.
be_pretty-2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently yesterday
Ñàalwa. I will be pretty (in the near future).
be_pretty-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.FNEANear future (tense)
something that will happen in not much time

Object
A transitive verb must also be inflected for the object, as another suffix placed directly after the subject suffix. The object suffix is simpler, in that it does not inflect for time.

Person	Suffix
1 SG	-wa
2 SG	-jaa
3 SG AN	-ja
3 SG INAN	-pu
1 Dual	-shi
1 PL	-yi
2 PL	-dzuu
3P AN	-adtu
3P INAN	-paqi

Here are a few more examples using both suffixes with the verb pii, which means to jump, but when it takes an object, it means to jump onto something.
Piiwupu wacu dzaal zitsmaa! I'm jumping onto the table!
jump-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.PRSPresent tense (tense)-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I OBJObject (argument) table
Piishuja ñàamu dzaal sinpi ñama. The cat jumped onto her mother.
jump-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.OBJObject (argument) cat OBJObject (argument) that.OBJObject (argument) mother
Piiutspaqi tijapaa dzaal anputu u. The doll will jump onto my hands. (We should probably be alarmed if this one comes true.)
jump-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.FNEANear future (tense)
something that will happen in not much time-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) doll OBJObject (argument) these hand

[edit] [top]Transitivity

Cuuyamu uses several different strategies to mark or change valency of verbs.

Different verbs
Certain actions have two different verbs that are semantically related but have different levels of valency. Neither verb is marked for transitivity, but it is lexically determined whether it will take an object or not. For example, the verb acaa means to enter or go to a place for some purpose, and it must always have an object. The verb bunja means to arrive, but it can never take an object. If needed, a location for the arrival can instead be expressed as an adverb.

Acaacijpu dzaal daziits. I went to school.
go_to-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) OBJObject (argument) school
Mutsshaa bunjalap. We arrived at the river.
destination-river arrive-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently

Ambitransitivity
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive without requiring any change of form. The main clue to the listener is whether the verb has an object suffix or not. Here's an example with the verb dzúútad.

Dzúútadlu çaja. The snake is slithering along the ground.
slide-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense) snake
Dzúútadmupu waci dzaal jats. We are dragging a cart along the ground.
slide-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).PRSPresent tense (tense)-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive) OBJObject (argument) cart

For these verbs, it is not uncommon for the transitive form to have a meaning that implies doing something against the object's will (if it has a will), as is the case here with slither vs. drag. That is certainly not always the case, however.

Cuuyamu. We speak.
speak-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).PRSPresent tense (tense)
Cuuyamupu wacu dzaal íínqalish. We speak English.
speak-1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).PRSPresent tense (tense)-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive) OBJObject (argument) English

Causative
The causative suffix -añi can be added to a verb stem to indicate that the subject caused the object to do something. This increases the verb's valency by one.

Sàatadtsa shaaj. It's raining.
fall-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense) rain
Sàatadañitsapaqi pàawu dzaal shaaj. The clouds are causing it to rain.
fall-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense)-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) cloud OBJObject (argument) rain

Most of the time this construction is used when the subject directly causes an action, but it can also slightly shift the meaning of the main verb, as demonstrated by the verb iu.

Yutaai iucij. I knew how to cook.
cook-CMPComplementiser (syntactic)
[clause] that [clause] know_how-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently
Yutaai iuañicijadtu waci dzaal anputu tunaju. I taught my friends how to cook.
cook-CMPComplementiser (syntactic)
[clause] that [clause] know_how-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.OBJObject (argument) 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I OBJObject (argument) these.OBJObject (argument) friend

Passive voice
Cuuyamu also has a passive construction, formed by adding the suffix -nu to the verb stem, deleting the original subject of the sentence, and promoting the former object to become the new subject. This reduces the valency of the verb by one.

Patsyimlupu ñaji dzaal bííjaap. The father is eating a potato.
eat-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) father OBJObject (argument) potato
Patsyimnutan bííjaap. The potato is being eaten.
eat-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense) potato

Reflexive verbs
Certain verbs can be (or must be) used reflexively, which means the subject acts on itself. To form reflexive verbs, reduplicate the subject suffix and leave off the object suffix. Note that this is not the same as using the same actor to determine both subject and object suffixes, since the two sets of suffixes have different forms.

Pàawutsatsa çíí jaz. The sky is cloudy today. (Literally, the skies are clouding themselves today.)
cloud-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense)~REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself today skies
Cuuyalulu çalu shu. That boy is talking to himself.
talk-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)~REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself that boy

Reciprocal verbs
Reciprocal verbs, on the other hand, do take the regular subject and object suffixes for the same group of actors. This construction can only be used for plural or dual subjects, and normally the verb is also accompanied by the adverb yiçu. Reciprocal verbs are used transitively, when members of the subject group are acting on one another.

Yiçu cuuyaciadtu nuatuzita jipa. The old men are talking to each other.
together talk-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.OBJObject (argument) be_old-ADJAdjectival
syntactic man

Collective verbs
Yiçu can also be used to indicate that a verb is being performed collectively. This also only exists for plural subjects, but in this case is used only for intransitive verbs, so there is no object suffix.

Yiçu cuuyaci. They are speaking. (With one unified voice)
together talk-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Shintu yiçu nuatuziç. They grew old together.
IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'.ATLAtelic (aspect)
partially completed event together be_old-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently

[edit] [top]Other morphemes

Habitual
The habitual form of a verb is marked by reduplicating the final syllable of the stem, reducing the vowel if it was long, and adding -sa. The subject and object suffixes are then added as normal.

Acaalu. She is entering.
enter-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Acaacasalu. She enters over and over.
enter~HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Latadañiçipu çadi dzaal ñaaltsi. You planted a sapling. (This uses a causative construction; see above.)
go_underground-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act-2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) OBJObject (argument) sapling
Latadañiñisaçipu çadi dzaal ñaaltsi. You often planted saplings.
go_underground-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act~HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.OBJObject (argument) 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) OBJObject (argument) sapling

Note that in the last sentence, the object suffix referring to the saplings does not need to change to a plural form, because the habitual aspect of the verb indicates that an action (of planting a single sapling) took place more than once. Having a plural object would mean that multiple saplings were planted each time.

Potential
The possibility or impossibility of an action can also be encoded directly in the verb. This is done by adding a suffix to the verb stem, either -da for possibility or -du for impossibility.

Cuuyalu. He is talking.
speak-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Cuuyadalu. He can talk.
speak-possible-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Cuuyadulu. He can't talk.
speak-impossible-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)

This refers to either physical or mental possibility of carrying out the action. Having permission to do something is expressed instead using the auxiliary verb sajuut, to allow:

Cuuyai sajuutluwa. She gives me permission to talk.
speak-CMPComplementiser (syntactic)
[clause] that [clause] allow-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.OBJObject (argument)
Cuuyai sajuutnuwu. I am allowed to talk. (This is using a passive construction.)
speak-CMPComplementiser (syntactic)
[clause] that [clause] allow-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.PRSPresent tense (tense)

Using a potential marker for a stative verb indicates that the state is possible or impossible, at least in the speaker's estimation. It does not include any implication about the probability of that state.

Datsiipdalu. It's possible that she's lost.
be_lost-possible-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PRSPresent tense (tense)
Zatsdutan çaja. The snake can't be yellow.
be_yellow-impossible-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense) snake

Stative to dynamic
The suffix -ñuj can be added to a verb stem to change a stative verb to a dynamic one.

Pàawutsatsa jaz. The skies are cloudy.
be_cloudy-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense)~REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself sky
Pàawuñujtsatsa jaz. The skies are becoming cloudy.
be_cloudy-dynamic-3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile.PRSPresent tense (tense)~REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself sky

This process can't be used with every stative verb, however. Iu means 'to know how to do something,' but there is no corresponding verb that can be formed from *iuñuj.

Conditional and Irrealis
A verb may be marked as conditional by adding the suffix -zi or irrealis by adding the suffix -bu. I won't get into the usage of these grammatical moods in this article, since they relate to syntax and meaning at the sentence level.

Negation
There are two ways of indicating negation of a verb. The first is to use the particle úún directly before the verb. The second is to add the prefix u- to a verb stem. Because stress in Cuuyamu always falls on the first syllable of a word, using the negation prefix has the side effect of shifting the stress and thus stripping any tone from the verb stem.

[edit] [top]Ordering the suffixes

Verbs are the most heavily affix-laden part of the language. In particular, a verb stem can be followed by a long string of suffixes which affect the meaning or convey various bits of grammatical information. There's a fairly rigid order for these suffixes to appear.

Stem - [ HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit ] - [ IRRIrrealis
mood, CONDConditional (mood)
would ] - [ CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act, POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability ] - [ PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed ] - [ SUBSubject (argument), RELRelative, QInterrogative
question ] - [ OBJObject (argument), RELRelative, REFLReflexive (valency)
argument acts on itself, QInterrogative
question ]

Habitual
The habitual suffix includes reduplication of the last syllable of the verb stem. When it appears, it always comes directly after the stem.

Irrealis and Conditional
A verb may have either an irrealis suffix or a conditional suffix, but not both.

Causative and Potential
The causative/potential group is somewhat unique, in that a verb can have both markers and the order is significant. The suffix closest to the stem dictates the core meaning of the action. Using the verb zantu, to notice, as an example:

Zantuañidashuwa. It was impossible for him to make me notice.
notice-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act-impossible-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.OBJObject (argument)

Zantudaañishuwa. He made it impossible for me to notice.
notice-impossible-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving.PNEANear past (tense)
past events that occurred recently-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.OBJObject (argument)

Passive
The passive marker, if it appears, always comes directly before the subject suffix.

Subject and Object
The subject and object suffixes are always in fixed position at the end of a verb. However, either (or both) may be replaced by relative markers, question markers, or a reflexive marker (object only). There will only ever be one suffix in each location.

Pushing the limits
Ignoring the negation prefix for a moment, the theoretical maximum number of morphemes for a verb is seven. For example:

stem - habitual - conditional - possible - causative - passive - subject
stem - habitual - irrealis - causative - impossible - subject - question
stem - habitual - conditional - impossible - causative - subject - reflexive

In practice, it would not be common to use that many suffixes on a single verb. ✎ Edit Article ✖ Delete Article

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