Niđalosa Ušivart - Nithalosian Particles
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Reference for Nithalosian particles
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 1 Sep 2017, 21:49.
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10. Times and dates
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This article has been marked as out of date. There's a possibility that some information is incorrect.
The particles in Nithalosian must always follow the noun they describe or relate to. For example, “with my friend” becomes ana yuda go (lit. my friend with) in Nithalos. The particles are always spelled in lowercase - even in titles.
[top]ađ - only, just
ađ is the same as voi, but without the negative connotations.
An niđalos vas ađ vomiša.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' only speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I speak only Nithalosian.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' only speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I speak only Nithalosian.
Eđvuli ađ kutniva.
cabbage only buy-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I just bought cabbages (nothing else).
action occurred before moment of speech I just bought cabbages (nothing else).
[top]am - and (inexhaustive)
am shows an incomplete list, and should not be used to list any more than three items. This particle is not productive.
An pogeđpada al keviu am govau skamiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity animal.place LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc snake-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient and bat-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient see-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech At the zoo, I saw snakes and bats [and other things]
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity animal.place LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc snake-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient and bat-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient see-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech At the zoo, I saw snakes and bats [and other things]
[top]aks - into (translative)
aks shows a change or transition from one thing/state to another. When using aks with adjectives, traditionally the adjectives must take the -vi suffix. However, this is becoming no longer the case, and the -vi is dropped.
An kagau uršovi aks suiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity music-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient loud-COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better' TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cause-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I turned up the music (lit: I made music into [something] louder)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity music-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient loud-COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better' TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cause-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I turned up the music (lit: I made music into [something] louder)
An midoenau yoisođ šuke aks rorila.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity green.thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient delicious meal TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cook-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past I cooked the vegetables into a delicious meal.
aks is often shortened and added to the end of an adjective. This is usually shortened to 'ks.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity green.thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient delicious meal TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cook-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past I cooked the vegetables into a delicious meal.
An kagau uršo'ks suiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity music-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient loud-TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cause-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I turned up the music (lit: I made music into [something] louder)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity music-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient loud-TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming cause-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I turned up the music (lit: I made music into [something] louder)
[top]al - in, at (locative), on (time)
When using the verb ari ('to be') with al, the entire verb can be dropped.
Larđa nivam al [ari].
Lartha garden LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc [be-PRSPresent tense (tense)] Lartha is in the garden.
'in, on, at' etc [be-PRSPresent tense (tense)] Lartha is in the garden.
An škol al Niđalosa adegu ušni.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity school LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc nithalos-GENGenitive (case)
possessive language-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient learn-PRSPresent tense (tense) I learn Nithalos [language] at school.
Al can also be shortened in speech, or in prose (such as songs or poems) where syllable conservation is needed. This is generally shortened to 'l, and can only be done so after nouns ending in a vowel.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity school LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc nithalos-GENGenitive (case)
possessive language-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient learn-PRSPresent tense (tense) I learn Nithalos [language] at school.
Roka'l omtorau asiva
hand-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc bird-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I held the bird in [my] hand[s].
When specifying 'at' a particular point in time (for example, 'on wednesday'), you can use al.
'in, on, at' etc bird-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I held the bird in [my] hand[s].
Veia'l enau kuđniđa.
wednesday-TEMPTemporal (case)
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech.IRRIrrealis
mood I will buy things on Wednesday.
specifying time (at one, on Monday, etc.) thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech.IRRIrrealis
mood I will buy things on Wednesday.
[top]alna (relational locative)
This can be loosely translated as '... which is in ', '... that is at' etc. alna is a contraction of al arina; used to show a physical or prepositional relationship between two items. The word order here usually looks the opposite to what it would in English.
Dravdag alna dravu mido.
grass.field LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc.RELRelative grass-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient green The grass [which is] in the meadow is green.
'in, on, at' etc.RELRelative grass-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient green The grass [which is] in the meadow is green.
[top]da - because of, thanks to, according to
Ana prođna da, an rakau ariyo.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive brother thanks-to I money-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have-NEGNegative (polarity)
not Thanks to my brother, I have no money.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive brother thanks-to I money-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have-NEGNegative (polarity)
not Thanks to my brother, I have no money.
Ševun da, ansomaam yođ enau si.
government according-to police good thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient do-PRSPresent tense (tense) According to the government, the police do good things.
TRANS direct object; patient do-PRSPresent tense (tense) According to the government, the police do good things.
[top]đu - around, amongst, about
đu is used to show an approximation. This can be both numerical, and physical locations.
Avi tadana noka đu đariva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; IPLPlural (number)
more than one/few shelf-GENGenitive (case)
possessive middle around stand-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We stood around the centre of the kitchen.
speaker, signer, etc; IPLPlural (number)
more than one/few shelf-GENGenitive (case)
possessive middle around stand-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We stood around the centre of the kitchen.
Avđei đu yu doma.
spiderweb amongst COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate door Amongst the spiderwebs is a door.
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate door Amongst the spiderwebs is a door.
Nega na si nai đu tani al ariva.
book NUMNumeral three zero about shelf LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc be-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech There were about thirty books on the shelf
'in, on, at' etc be-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech There were about thirty books on the shelf
[top]vai - or (zero-sum)
This form of 'or' requires a yes or no answer - that is, BOTH of the options are included in the question. This is different to li which also means 'or'.
Mo malvi vai šakoru kutniya tas?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity butter or sugar-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want? Do you want to buy butter or sugar?
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity butter or sugar-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want? Do you want to buy butter or sugar?
[top]vas / vaš - with, using, by means of (instrumental)
vas mostly shows an instrument or a means by which something was accomplished. The 'instrument' does not necessarily have to be tangible - as in the case of languages.
Both vas and vaš are the same and able to be used completely in free association with one another.
Niđalos vaš šaviya krega?
nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' write-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do-for Can you write this in Nithalosian [for me]?
'with', 'using' write-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do-for Can you write this in Nithalosian [for me]?
Maška vaš šaviva.
pen INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' write-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I wrote it using a pen.
'with', 'using' write-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I wrote it using a pen.
Pati vas evu dapiya tas.
bat INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' 3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity hit-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to hit him with a bat.
'with', 'using' 3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity hit-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to hit him with a bat.
[top]vi - from / since
When used with a place or giver of something (eg. "I got it from him"), vi means 'from'. When used with a time, this means 'since'.
Mo škol vi kašiva s?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity school from run-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised Did you run [here] from school?
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity school from run-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised Did you run [here] from school?
Maekira vi taprivayo.
morning since eat-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-NEGNegative (polarity)
not I haven't eaten since [this] morning
action occurred before moment of speech-NEGNegative (polarity)
not I haven't eaten since [this] morning
[top]voi - only, just, even, despite
The use of voi has a slight negative connotation, whereas ađ is without.
An Niđalos vas voi vomiša.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' only speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I speak only Nithalosian [unfortunately].
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' only speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I speak only Nithalosian [unfortunately].
Eđvuli voi kutniva.
cabbage only buy-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I just bought cabbages (nothing else).
action occurred before moment of speech I just bought cabbages (nothing else).
Koa kasi voi, anu ma amvo.
this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive wind even 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment still warm Even in this wind, I am still warm.
Note: This may have been spelled 'vo' in the past. This has since changed in order to not confuse it with the particle 'vo' meaning 'also/too'.
possessive wind even 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment still warm Even in this wind, I am still warm.
[top]vo / vu / lo - too, also, as well
Vo, vu, and lo all mean the same thing. As vo used to mean 'only/just' as well, this use was pronounced [vu] and sometimes also spelled to reflect this (hence vu). The spelling of the other particle was changed, and today vo is more commonly used to mean too/also, and is pronounced /vo/.
Vu is still sometimes used - particularly by older Nithalosians or in older texts - or when a text wants to sound more formal. Lo is much rarer and is only favoured in some areas of Nithalosia.
An vo eštiya tas!
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity also go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go too [with the rest of you]!
This particle can also be used in lieu of the accusative to imply there may be other things in the list. Where you want to explicitly state something like 'etc', it'd be better to use ... i anađ.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity also go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go too [with the rest of you]!
An dintaloštu skali vu vromi.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity electric.picture-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient watch-PRSPresent tense (tense) also like-PRSPresent tense (tense) I also like watching movies [amongst other things].
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity electric.picture-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient watch-PRSPresent tense (tense) also like-PRSPresent tense (tense) I also like watching movies [amongst other things].
[top]eg / ey - to, for (dative)
eg denotes the indirect object. Both eg and ey are pronounced /e:/ in Nithalos. eg becomes ey when attached to pronouns. Sometimes the spelling ey is preferred - especially colloquially, and in Govđa state.
An krođna eg negau yomeiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity sister DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I read the story to my sister.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity sister DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I read the story to my sister.
An mo eg utariya tas.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location sing-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to sing for you.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location sing-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to sing for you.
Ev aney emvugoiva s!
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location smile-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised She smiled at me!
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location smile-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised She smiled at me!
[top]i - and (exhaustive)
i always shows a complete list.
An koa negau yomeila, i mate yomeiya tas.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past and again read-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I have read this book, and I want to read it again.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past and again read-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I have read this book, and I want to read it again.
[top]li - or (optional)
This form of 'or' requires you to choose one of the two options. This is different to vai which also means 'or'.
Mo malvi li šakoru kutniya tas?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity butter or sugar-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want Do you want to buy butter or sugar?
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity butter or sugar-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want Do you want to buy butter or sugar?
[top]gi - for (period of time)
An timo na ta gi koa negau yomeiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity hour NUMNumeral two for this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I read this book for two hours.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity hour NUMNumeral two for this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive book-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient read-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I read this book for two hours.
[top]go - with, by
go serves two separate purposes:
To show a companion (not necessarily animate) - ie. comitative case:
Mo soš go eštiva?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity who COMComitative (case)
'together with' go-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech Who did you go with?
And to mark the agent of a passive statement:
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity who COMComitative (case)
'together with' go-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech Who did you go with?
Koa nega kravđi go šavava.
this-GENGenitive (case)
possessive book mother AGEAgent (role)
cause or initiator of event/action write-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech This book was written by Mum.
possessive book mother AGEAgent (role)
cause or initiator of event/action write-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech This book was written by Mum.
[top]mae - before, in (amount of time)
mae can be both temporal and physical 'before'. To avoid some ambiguities, sometimes al is added after mae.
Evđa mae (al) komoi asuriva.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few before (LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc) bear-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient appear-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech The bear appeared [physically] before/in front of them.
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few before (LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc) bear-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient appear-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech The bear appeared [physically] before/in front of them.
Evđa komo mae tukoiva.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few bear before arrive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech They arrived before [/earlier than] the bear.
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few bear before arrive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech They arrived before [/earlier than] the bear.
Ana yuda tais na 15 mae tukoiđa.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive friend minute NUMNumeral 15 before arrive-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech My friend will be here in 15 minutes [in the future].
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive friend minute NUMNumeral 15 before arrive-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech My friend will be here in 15 minutes [in the future].
[top]mea - up to, until (terminative)
Praeigi aks nari mea an ovariđayo.
king TRANSLTranslative (case)
becoming become-PRSPresent tense (tense) until 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity stop-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-NEGNegative (polarity)
not I will not rest (cease) until I become King.
becoming become-PRSPresent tense (tense) until 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity stop-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-NEGNegative (polarity)
not I will not rest (cease) until I become King.
Avi škola eripaso mea untiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; IPLPlural (number)
more than one/few school-GENGenitive (case)
possessive entrance up.to drive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We drove up to the entrance of the school.
speaker, signer, etc; IPLPlural (number)
more than one/few school-GENGenitive (case)
possessive entrance up.to drive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We drove up to the entrance of the school.
[top]na (numerative / quantifier)
na does not have a direct translation in English. It is used to assign a quantity to a noun. Often when pronounced, it is just shortened to /n/ - depending on the environment.
Evu ekva na ta ona kit.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment face NUMNumeral two ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient.RELRelative person He is the man with two faces.
In this example, the na ties together the noun (ekva - "face") with the quantity (ta - "two"), and ekva na ta would be pronoucned ['ekfan 'ta].
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment face NUMNumeral two ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient.RELRelative person He is the man with two faces.
[top]no - between, during, through, by
no can be used in both physical and temporal contexts.
Inu ana yaša no sumvi.
dog 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive leg beween sit-PRSPresent tense (tense) The dog is sitting between my legs.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive leg beween sit-PRSPresent tense (tense) The dog is sitting between my legs.
Niđalosia alna okođ samsei no miođ kitu šinila.
nithalosia LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc.RELRelative big war during many person-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient die-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past During the great war in Nithalosia, many people died.
No can also be used to mean 'through' a place.
'in, on, at' etc.RELRelative big war during many person-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient die-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past During the great war in Nithalosia, many people died.
Avi samepa no arkiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked through the park.
In addition to 'through', no can be used to mean 'past' when with a verb of motion. This can be confusing for non-natives with the above meaning of 'through'.
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked through the park.
Avi samepa no arkiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked past the park.
If you wish to specify that the subject went through the middle of the park, then you would use noka instead.
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked past the park.
Avi samepa noka arkiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked through [the centre of] the park.
speaker, signer, etc; I.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few park through walk-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech We walked through [the centre of] the park.
[top]nu - within, inside, in
Used only for closed areas, such as being specifically inside a building (rather than 'at' a place), or inside a box etc. Can also be used temporally to show something happening inside/within a timeframe.
An timo nu yorataprau tapri.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity time within evening.meal-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat-PRSPresent tense (tense) I will eat dinner within an hour.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity time within evening.meal-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat-PRSPresent tense (tense) I will eat dinner within an hour.
Inu kak nu kaksava.
dog box INEInessive (case)
'inside' hide-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-pst The dog was hidden inside the box.
'inside' hide-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-pst The dog was hidden inside the box.
An kak nu ari.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity box INEInessive (case)
'inside' be-PRSPresent tense (tense) I am in a box.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity box INEInessive (case)
'inside' be-PRSPresent tense (tense) I am in a box.
[top]oe - above, on top of
oe differs from ula and al in that it is more specifically 'on top of', rather than 'at' or 'above [and beyond]'. Like mae, oe can be used in conjunction with al.
Negau tani oe (al).
book-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment shelf SUPESuperessive (case)
'on top of' (LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc) The book is on the shelf.
attribute assignment shelf SUPESuperessive (case)
'on top of' (LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc) The book is on the shelf.
[top]om - about (topic)
om is used to show the subject of discourse.
Mo amna om aney vomiya krega?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity opinion about 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location say-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Could you tell me about your opinion?
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity opinion about 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location say-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Could you tell me about your opinion?
[top]ona - relational possessive
ona has no direct English translation. It is essentially a contraction of -u asina [ACC have.REL]. For example, this particle can be used to shorten:
Kvašu asina praiu serdo.
glue-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have-RELRelative boy-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment angry The boy with/[who has] the glue is angry.
To just the following:
TRANS direct object; patient have-RELRelative boy-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment angry The boy with/[who has] the glue is angry.
Kvaš ona praiu serdo.
glue ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient-RELRelative boy-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment angry The boy with/[who has] the glue is angry.
The o in ona comes from the historic accusative ó particle (which is no longer in use).
TRANS direct object; patient-RELRelative boy-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment angry The boy with/[who has] the glue is angry.
[top]or - for, to, in order to, so that (benefactive)
or is used to show a purpose or beneficiary (person who will benefit - who it is done for) of an action.
Tišau tapri or olant to eštiya tas.
cheese-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit Holland to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go to Holland to eat cheese.
TRANS direct object; patient eat BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit Holland to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go to Holland to eat cheese.
Enau tadmi or ana sašvagu sašvi.
thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive tool-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient use-PRSPresent tense (tense) I use my tools for building things.
TRANS direct object; patient eat BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive tool-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient use-PRSPresent tense (tense) I use my tools for building things.
Rakau kaksi or, dagođ enau kutniya ovariya kyan.
money-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient hide BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit expensive thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together stop-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together must In order to save money, you have to stop buying expensive things.
TRANS direct object; patient hide BENBenefactive (case)
recipient of benefit expensive thing-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient buy-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together stop-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together must In order to save money, you have to stop buying expensive things.
Kodravnau ovariša or, praran to eštiya kyan.
homework-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient finish-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability library to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together must I have to go to the library so that I can finish my homework.
TRANS direct object; patient finish-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability library to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together must I have to go to the library so that I can finish my homework.
[top]po (quotative)
po is used when quoting something directly and indirectly. It follows the phrase to quote, and before the second verb. When quoting indirectly, the quoted phrase must be separated by commas, with po outside of these.
An “mou aško” po vomiva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote say-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I said “you are beautiful”.
Often instead of splicing the quoted phrase, the subject of the sentence is moved to between the quoted phrase and the verb. For example, the following:
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote say-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I said “you are beautiful”.
Ev, anu aško, po ami.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote think-PRSPresent tense (tense) He thinks (that) I am beautiful.
Can also be said (without commas):
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote think-PRSPresent tense (tense) He thinks (that) I am beautiful.
Anu aško po ev ami.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity think-PRSPresent tense (tense) He thinks (that) I am beautiful.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment beautiful QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity think-PRSPresent tense (tense) He thinks (that) I am beautiful.
[top]s / se / es (emphatic particle)
This particle emphasises the point of a sentence and/or shows stronger emotion than otherwise present in the sentence.
The difference between s and se is purely down to the context and speaker's choice. Often the se is very elongated, usually to show something being displeasurable, or to show the speaker's distaste in something. The shorter s is often used more with more excitable contexts, or 'punchy'/assertive statements.
Es is preferred when the end of the sentence ends in a consonant (to make the particle more noticable). Rarely, the two are combined to make ese - but this is highly colloquial.
An mou dovli s!
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient hate-PRSPresent tense (tense) EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised I hate you!
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity 2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient hate-PRSPresent tense (tense) EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised I hate you!
Anu kodu al on es!
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment home LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc NEGNegative (polarity)
not EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised I am not home!
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-STATStative (case)
attribute assignment home LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc NEGNegative (polarity)
not EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised I am not home!
[top]so - when
so is used to mean 'when' an action happened. It always goes after the verb and auxilliaries that it describes.
Neka ana tišau taprila so, an sani serdava.
cat 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive cheese-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past when 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity very anger-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech When the cat ate my cheese, I got very angry.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive cheese-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient eat-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past when 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity very anger-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech When the cat ate my cheese, I got very angry.
[top]šo - as, like (essive)
An maiđa šo šuioka yemiša.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity bee ESSEssive (case)
'as, similar' fast-ADVAdverbial
e.g. English '-ly' fly-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I can fly as fast[ly] as a bee.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity bee ESSEssive (case)
'as, similar' fast-ADVAdverbial
e.g. English '-ly' fly-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability I can fly as fast[ly] as a bee.
Ev tegna šo utariša.
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity angel ESSEssive (case)
'as, similar' sing-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability She can sing like an angel.
neither speaker nor addresseeSGSingular (number)
one countable entity angel ESSEssive (case)
'as, similar' sing-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability She can sing like an angel.
[top]štei - under, below, less than (subessive)
Otauskit keši štei sumi.
house.ABEAbessive (case)
without.people bridge SUBESubessive (case)
'under' reside-PRSPresent tense (tense) Homeless people live under the bridge.
without.people bridge SUBESubessive (case)
'under' reside-PRSPresent tense (tense) Homeless people live under the bridge.
Atlantis, marev štei kaksala, po voma.
Atlantis ocean SUBESubessive (case)
'under' hide-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote say-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed It is said that Atlantis is hidden below the sea.
'under' hide-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed-AORAorist (tense/aspect)
usually the simple past QUOQuotative
marks a direct or indirect quote say-PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed It is said that Atlantis is hidden below the sea.
Kit na ta štei niđalos vas vomiša.
people num two less.than nithalos INSInstrumental (case)
'with', 'using' speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability Less than two people can speak Nithalosian.
'with', 'using' speak-POTPotential (mood)
likely events, ability Less than two people can speak Nithalosian.
[top]to - to (direction)
Mo aney šoyapada to untiya krega?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location airport to drive-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Would you drive [for] me to the airport?
Despite looking like it is from English, to has been through a few changes to get to this point: ox [oθ] > ot [ot] > to [to].
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location airport to drive-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Would you drive [for] me to the airport?
[top]ula - over, above, more than
An đarge ula amaniva.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity fence over jump-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I jumped over the fence.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity fence over jump-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I jumped over the fence.
Mo aney si ula arviya krega?
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location three more.than give-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Would you be able to give [to] me more than three?
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location three more.than give-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together do.for Would you be able to give [to] me more than three?
[top]us - without (abessive)
Evđa an us eštiva s!
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity ABEAbessive (case)
without go-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised They went without me!
neither speaker nor addresseePLPlural (number)
more than one/few 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity ABEAbessive (case)
without go-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech EMPEmphatic
stressed or emphasised They went without me!
Nerti us ana kodravnau ovariva.
sleep-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb ABEAbessive (case)
without 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive homework-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient finish-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I finished my homework without going to sleep.
non-tensed verb ABEAbessive (case)
without 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive homework-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient finish-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech I finished my homework without going to sleep.
[top]uši / ušira - behind, after, ago
uši is just a short form of ušira
Komo samen uši kaksiva.
bear tree behind hide-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech The bear hid behind the tree.
action occurred before moment of speech The bear hid behind the tree.
An kodravnau ovariva uši, samepa to eštiya tas.
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity homework-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient finish-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech after park to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go to the park after I have finished my homework.
speaker, signer, etc; ISGSingular (number)
one countable entity homework-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient finish-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech after park to go-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together want I want to go to the park after I have finished my homework.
Moa yuda tais na 30 uši tukoiva.
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive friend(s) minute NUMNumeral thirty ago arrive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech Your friends arrived 30 minutes ago.
addressee (you)SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-GENGenitive (case)
possessive friend(s) minute NUMNumeral thirty ago arrive-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech Your friends arrived 30 minutes ago.
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