Växárai Grammar
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An overview of Växárai grammar.
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 5 Dec 2018, 08:08.
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1. Växárai Grammar
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2. Växárai Literature
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This article is a work in progress! Check back later in case any changes have occurred.
This article is a work in progress! Check back later in case any changes have occurred.
Verbs are the most important part of Växárai grammar, agreeing with the subject and objects and marking for tense, aspect, mood, and voice. Prefixes are unaffected by vowel harmony and generally have an inanimate/animate split, and suffixes are affected. The default state of a verb is usually that of volition. The dictionary forms of pronomial affixes are mostly singular third person obviative.
| Name | Slot | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 動虛/dúngho | derivation | negation, volition etc. |
| 動次/dúngfii | pluractional | quantifiable repetition |
| 動使/dúngxi | applied object | slot for pronomial |
| 動具/dúnggoo | indirect object | slot for pronomial |
| 動直/dúngdik | direct object | slot for pronomial |
| 動本/dúngpun | root | the verb root |
| 動對/dúngtiia | direct-inverse | when the agent outranks or is outranked by the patient |
| 動見/dúngken | voice | other grammatical voices |
| 動副/dúngpho | adverbial | functions as adverb |
| 動重/dúngdong | frequentative | general repetition of actions |
| 動計/dúngke | diminutive-intensive | strength of a verb |
| 動習/düviip | habitual | denoting habit |
| 動能/dúngnong | ability | ability to act |
| 動聞/dúngmun | evidential | source of information |
| 動信/dúngsin | dubitative | trustworthiness or doubt |
| 動可/dúngkha | modal | other grammatical moods |
| 動方/dúngpong | directional | indicates absolute cardinal direction as well as orientation |
| 動態/dúngthoi | aspect | how an action extends over time; usually Old Chinese loan-particles |
| 動連/dúngren | converb | forms for coordination and subordination |
See the noun section.
The cardinal numerals are used to indicate the quantifiable amount of subjects performing the action, while the distributive numerals are used to indicate the amount of objects being acted on. The slot is left blank if the number is unimportant or singular. The pluractional slot tends to agree with the subject more often.
The system for writing cases and pronomials with radicals (部書法 - Büyhóbap/portioned writing method) predates the adoption of Hangul and Manchu and persists to this day. The object radical goes on top, the case radical next, and the number radical at the bottom. This slot can be occupied by a pronomial prefix or a classifier. The slot is used when the verb has an applicative voice and has more objects than indirect and direct. The pronomials agree with gender, number, and person. Multiple applied objects can fit this slot, with contrasting obviation to differentiate between them.
| ⿳⼧ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⽬ - First Person Inclusive (AN) | ve | vi | fem | vee |
| ⾎ - First Person Exclusive (AN) | ∅ | vim | fiie | vem |
| ⼯ - Second Person (AN) | si | sei | xim | sii |
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (AN) | yi | yee | yim | yii |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (AN) | ya | yai | yha | yhe |
| ⿳⼧ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (INAN) | yu | yoo | yum | yuu |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (INAN) | ka | kao | kha | khe |
This slot can be occupied by a pronomial prefix or a classifier. The slot is used when the verb has an indirect object, especially by any of the noun cases. The pronomials agree with gender, number, and person.
| ⿳⽳ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⽬ - First Person Inclusive (AN) | e | i | ewa | eya |
| ⾎ - First Person Exclusive (AN) | ∅ | iwa | eye | ewe |
| ⼯ - Second Person (AN) | si | ei | wa | ya |
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (AN) | i | ye | wi | yi |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (AN) | a | ai | ha | he |
| ⿳⽳ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (INAN) | u | yo | wu | yu |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (INAN) | a | ao | ha | he |
This slot can be occupied by a pronomial prefix or a classifier. The slot is used when the verb has a direct object. The pronomials agree with gender, number, and person.
| ⿳爫 | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⽬ - First Person Inclusive (AN) | ne | ni | me | mee |
| ⾎ - First Person Exclusive (AN) | ∅ | nim | mhe | mem |
| ⼯ - Second Person (AN) | hi | hei | mim | mii |
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (AN) | ni | nei | mi | ywi |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (AN) | na | nai | ma | me |
| ⿳爫 | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⼰ - Third Person Proximative (INAN) | nu | nou | mu | ywu |
| ⾥ - Third Person Obviative (INAN) | na | nao | ma | mo |
Verb roots have arbitrary gender based on their vowel harmony. New roots can be created through derivations or noun incorporation (prefixing). There are four types of noun incorporation: Scope, Promotion, Establishing, and Classification. Scope prefixes a related noun to narrow the scope of the verb (no effect on valence). Promotion promotes a former oblique argument to subject or direct object status by incorporating the former subject or direct object of a verb (an agent cannot be incorporated). This is used to maintain the closest hierarchical argument as the subject; promotion is often used productively on verb roots that usually have inanimate subjects. Establishing is used in discourse when a previously established standalone noun is mentioned again, placing the noun in any of the previous argument slots; it is not productive. Classification is similar except it makes use of semantically broad classifiers in place of the previously mentioned noun and can be used productively.
This slot changes depending on whether the agent outranks the patient (Direct) or the patient outranks the agent (Inverse). This functions as the verb stem; the direct marking is the dictionary form of a verb. The direct stem is -am and the inverse stem is -aa. Naturally a hiatus will be inserted if the verb root has the same vowel type. The direct stem is taken when there is a reciprocal construction, with the higher ranking argument placed in the subject slot.
This slot marks the grammatical voice, which has rough correspondence to the nominal cases and some extra functions. The applicatives promote an oblique object to a direct object, increasing the valency by one. If there is a displaced object, it is placed in the applied object slot. Even if the displaced object is dropped, the applied object pronomial remains. The passive voice can be combined with the applicatives, with the passive voice suffixed onto the applicative.
| Suffix | Character | Voice | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| fin | 哯 | passive | the subject is the patient; demotes subject to obviative indirect object and promotes direct object to subject (valency -1) |
| rin | 咱 | reflexive | the direct object is the same as the subject |
| pan | 𠷹 | reciprocal | the subject and direct object are both agent and patient simultaneously |
| ya | 哩 | obviative applicative | promotes an obviative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); general |
| ve | 𠰅 | dative applicative | promotes a dative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); recipient |
| yi | 哫 | instrumental applicative | promotes an instrumental indirect object to direct object (valency +1); using something |
| si | 㕲 | sociative/topical applicative | promotes a sociative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); along with something; regarding something |
| whe | 呑 | ablative/aversive/locative applicative | promotes an ablative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); movement away from something; avoidance of something; a specific location/time |
| na | 𠮰 | delative/durative applicative | promotes a delative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); movement from the surface; duration of time |
| ma | 吙 | elative/terminative applicative | promotes an elative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); out of something; end of an action |
| ka | 𠰮 | initiative/causative applicative | promotes an initiative indirect object to direct object (valency +1); the starting point of an action; cause of an action |
This slot accepts adverbial suffixes. In literary usage derived adverbs can also be used.
| Suffix | Character | Adverb |
|---|---|---|
| te | 𠮳 | excessively |
| ngi | 𠮴 | partially |
| yin | 𠱚 | completely |
| kii | 𠲣 | truly |
| ywe | 哃 | similarly |
| tte | 𠮚 | exactly |
| nha | 𠯆 | reluctantly |
| mem | 𠰧 | obliged to by a higher ranking person |
| ri | 𠰼 | obliged to by societal norms |
| wha | 𠱀 | obliged to by material needs |
| sen | 𠰣 | general obligation |
This slot accepts frequentative suffixes, which denote general repetition of actions. It is not to be confused with the habitual slot which implies an agent cause for the repetition.
| Suffix | Character | Frequentative |
|---|---|---|
| nghi | 𠯲 | action is made up of multiple low frequency regular instances |
| nghen | 𠯭 | action is made up of multiple high frequency regular instances |
| thi | 𠰆 | action is made up of multiple low frequency erratic instances |
| thipa | 𠱁 | action is made up of multiple high frequency erratic instances |
| ppi | 𠮡 | action is performed in double instances |
| than | 𠯀 | action is performed in triple instances |
This slot accepts diminutive-intensive suffixes, which denote the intensity of an action. Most affixes are borrowings from Old Chinese or Proto-Hmong-Mien; vowel harmony still applies.
| Suffix | Character | Diminutive-Intensive |
|---|---|---|
| tem | 點 | carefully; to the smallest degree |
| nhin | 細 | lightly; with little intensity |
| keng | 鼎 | firmly; with inertia |
| agam | 高 | very; above average intensity |
| yhan | 太 | supremely; to the highest positive degree |
| hang | 疱 | extremely; to the highest negative degree; blistering(intense heat) |
| nhayeng | 扼 | with focused intensity; suffocating intensity |
| nhep | 咳 | with high initial intensity; cough-like |
This slot accepts the habitual suffix -seri (習), which denotes a habitual repetition of actions caused by an agent. It has a number of interactions with other slots that change its meaning and pronunciation. The compounds cannot be used in conjunction with their roots.
| Compound | Character | Roots | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| yisi | 爲 | 𠱚習/completely-habitual | stative; ongoing but not evolving |
| hiphi | 將 | 𠮴咳習/partially-high initial intensive-habitual | prospective; about to |
| kihi | 聞 | 𠲣習/truly-habitual | gnomic; general truth |
| kiire | 綸 | 𠲣𠯲習/truly-regular low frequentative-habitual | remote past tense; inevitably |
| theeri | 必 | 𠮚習/exactly-habitual | future tense; inevitably |
| phari | 前 | 咳習/high initial intensive-habitual | recently; of great import |
| whari | 涌 | 𠱀習/material obligation-habitual | progressive; ongoing and evolving |
| seni | 又 | 𠰣習/general obligation-habitual | resumptive |
Transitive verbs usually imply the logical conclusion of that verb (e.g. to listen includes responding rather than just hearing). To imply no response, the stative habitual is used.
This slot accepts ability suffixes which denote ability to perform the action.
| Suffix | Character | Ability |
|---|---|---|
| ve | 可 | able to |
| nam | 困 | able to with great effort |
| reng | 助 | able to with help from another person |
| sak | 用 | able to with help from a tool |
| fem | 囨 | unable to |
This slot accepts evidential suffixes which denote the nature of the evidence supporting a statement. The first-hand evidential is the default unmarked evidential. The second-hand evidential suffix -mai (曰) marks information that was not personally observed or experienced by the speaker. It also is used as deflection of responsibility; e.g. 'I didn't say it, someone else did'. The third-hand evidential suffix -xi (曳) marks information that is far removed from the speaker.
This slot accepts dubitative suffixes which denote the level of trust the speaker has in a statement.
| Suffix | Character | Dubitative |
|---|---|---|
| mii | 䛃 | full confidence |
| xee | 𧥝 | uncertain confidence |
| ngee | 𧥥 | dubious |
| sing | 䛍 | extremely dubious |
This slot accepts modal suffixes which denote any additional grammatical mood. The default unmarked mood is indicative.
| Suffix | Character | Mood |
|---|---|---|
| kkim | 宓 | imperative; direct commands, prohibitions, and requests |
| sat | 能 | potential; likely to occur |
| rii | 望 | optative; wish or hope |
| thii | 罷 | hypothetical; something that might have happened but did not |
This slot accepts directional suffixes which indicate cardinal direction along with general orientation. The directional suffix is optional. It usually matches the orientation of the subject. The general orientation suffixes can be suffixed onto the cardinal directions to modify them.
| Suffix | Character | Directional |
|---|---|---|
| yhen | 東 | east |
| kat | 南 | south |
| rak | 西 | west |
| mhee | 北 | north |
| tiia | 對 | opposite orientation to subject |
| ari | 𡵒 | uphill |
| ine | 𡵝 | downhill |
This slot accepts aspect suffixes which denote how an action extends over time. The suffixes are usually particles from Old Chinese.
| Suffix | Character | Aspect |
|---|---|---|
| ka | 矣 | perfect; completed action with current relevance |
| pa | 甫 | just finished |
| adang | 嘗 | momentane; once in the past |
| siak | 昔 | earlier; contrast with the present |
| pang | 方 | past progressive/stative |
This slot is used to affix converb suffixes, which change verbs into coordinating and subordinating adverbials (converbs: often with a temporal or spatial aspect). Converbs never end a sentence but are clauses in a larger grammatical structure. They also form relative clauses, which retain pluractional/pronomial/classifier agreement with the modified word. The head is gapped if the word is a subject and pronoun retained if anything else. In the accessibility hierarchy, relative clauses only can apply to subjects.
| Suffix | Character | Converb |
|---|---|---|
| khim | 俞 | perfective; an action has been completed before the next one occurs (then) |
| tem | 𬽽 | imperfective; an action is happening simultaneously with the next (while) |
| tempe | 𪜽 | future imperfective; an action is incomplete but will be completed after the next action |
| mana | 𬾕 | continuative; an action is still happening (while; started before next action and will continue after) |
| vam | 命 | conditional; action depends on a time or condition (when/if) |
| ree | 𠇯 | relative; modifies a noun |
Nouns have a specific order of modifiers that must always be followed. Proximative/Obviative case can be omitted if there is an article attached. Articles are archaic and only show up in very formal writing, fossilised idioms, and religious texts. An adjective can be prefixed by removing case agreement. If a noun is prefixed onto a verb, the sound change rules are applied twice and only the noun root is kept. Derivations forming verbs can circumvent this, but the case is still dropped. Noun incorporation affects a verb's valence.
The rule for compounding nouns is below:
| 禮 - Re/Honourific | 距 - Go/Demonstrative-Article | 形 - Heng/Attributive | 主 - Yhoo/Possessive | 數 - Shoo/Numeral | 上虛 - Vángho/Derivation | 實 - Viit/Noun Root | 下虛 - Whaaho/Classifier | 闡 - Feng/Case |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 貴 | 硂 | ⿰⺡심黍 | 黍⿳⼤⽋幺 | 參 | 乎 | 黍 | ⿰뗑⼘ | ⿳⼤⾛厽 |
This is a general guideline, however some nouns are fused irregularly and the morphemes not easily recognisable.
This section refers to honourific prefixes that attach specifically to nouns, however the honourific system as a whole is more complicated. The affixes usually refer to objects that would be used by a certain caste. When referring to proper names several prefixes are also used, with most coming from Chinese. The distance system of classification is helpful in determining obviative distance within ontological hierarchy in a sentence. If a person has a title, that is used instead of an honourific. Below are the most commonly used honourifics.
| Honourific | Components | Distance | Function | Prevalence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| vang | 上 | -1 | any person high in rank | vernacular |
| whaa | 下 | +1 | any person low in rank | vernacular |
| yhengkaa | 聖駕 | -4 | His Majesty; emperor | common |
| vin | 臣 | -3 | subject; aristocrat caste | common |
| vi | 士 | -2 | knight; warrior caste | common |
| kan | 官 | -1 | magistrate; higher ranking official; gentry caste | common |
| ri | 吏 | 0 | clerk; low ranking official | common |
| min | 民 | +1 | serf caste; commoner | common |
| biie | 敝 | +2 | artisan caste | common |
| pee | 卑 | +3 | merchant caste | common |
| nu | 奴 | +4 | untouchable; slave caste | common |
| sen | 先 | -1 | deceased person | common |
| sen | 先 | -1 | past things; e.g. the old days | literary |
| senhen | 先賢 | -2 | deceased person who was highly regarded | common |
| mong | 亡 | -1 | young or low ranking deceased person | common |
| kii | 貴 | -1 | honourable thing related to addressee or high ranking person | common |
| puu | 寶 | -2 | precious thing | common |
| ara | 大 | -1 | honourable tool; clean thing | common |
| kke | 殮 | +1 | dishonourable tool; unclean thing | common |
Växárai has three articles, the definite ka, indefinite ha, and interrogative ywha. Owing to Växárai's mostly literary nature, these articles have come to reflect the relative rank of their referents, meaning that certain deixis is used for referents of different rank. This only applies to animate referents however. They have undergone a considerable amount of fusion and suppletion such that their original roots are obscured. Demonstrative suffixes were attached to articles as they cannot stand alone. If there is no referent, the written form takes a dummy ⼛ that is not pronounced. Usually verbal affixes are used instead, unless the referent is of particular emphasis or fossilised idioms are being used.
| Proximal (-1 to -4) | Medial (0 to 1) | Distal (2 to 3) | Hidden (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Definite | 硂 ka | 斫 kee | 砝 kin | 𬒊 ppe |
| Indefinite | 𡖇 ha | 夗 | 夝 hin | 𫯒 he |
| Interrogative | 玆 ywha | 𤣦 ree | 率 ywhin | 玈 ywhe |
Växárai uses a base-12 or duodecimal system with cardinal, ordinal, and distributive numbers. Numerals are transparent and don't affect vowel harmony if appended. The traditional Chinese numbering system is kept separate and only used for equations to the Chinese calendar and reading Chinese mathematical works. The origins of the ordinal and distributive numerals and suffixes is unknown and possibly from an ancient language substrate. The formal characters shown on the left are used when the numeral is affixed to a noun or verb.
| Number | Cardinal | Character | Ordinal | Character | Distributive | Character | Chinese | Character |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -x | tiia | 對x | tiiai | 於對x | tiiasak | 對x分 | bo | 負x |
| 0, 0 | sánsi | 蕶, 〇 | réni | 於零 | rénsak | 零分 | ren | 零 |
| 1, 1 | too | 幺, 〡 | yái | 於幺, 弌 | yásak | 幺分 | it | 一 |
| 2, 2 | saa | 貳, 〢 | kónoi | 於貳, 弍 | mánsak | 貳分 | nhii | 二 |
| 3, 3 | whe | 參, 〣 | púi | 於參, 弎 | ósak | 參分 | sam | 三 |
| 4, 4 | múri | 䦉, 〤 | maai | 於䦉 | rúsak | 䦉分 | sii | 四 |
| 5, 5 | íkan | 伍, 㐱 | níni | 於伍 | vóngsak | 伍分 | ngu | 五 |
| 6, 6 | song | 陸, 〥 | téi | 於陸 | xeesak | 陸分 | rok | 六 |
| 7, 7 | mhan | 柒, 〦 | súnai | 於柒 | yhúsak | 柒分 | fiit | 七 |
| 8, 8 | róso | 捌, 〧 | vái | 於捌 | woosak | 捌分 | piet | 八 |
| 9, 9 | ása | 玖, 〨 | túbai | 於玖 | xínsak | 玖分 | ko | 九 |
| 10, ↊ | sak | 拾, 〩 | yuui | 於拾 | kërísak | 拾分 | viip | 十 |
| 11, ↋ | xuk | 餗, 𡗟 | khaai | 於餗 | wámsak | 餗分 | ||
| 12, 10 | ham | 嗑, 叶 | rooi | 於嗑 | hósak | 嗑分 | ||
| 24, 20 | yhíwa | 𠳬, 卄 | yhíwai | 於𠳬 | yhïwásak | 𠳬分 | ||
| 36, 30 | maat | 𠻰, 卅 | maatai | 於𠻰 | maatásak | 𠻰分 | ||
| 48, 40 | vúyo | 𠸈, 卌 | vúyoi | 於𠸈 | vüyósak | 𠸈分 | ||
| 100, 84 | piek | 百 | piekai | 於百 | piekásak | 百分 | piek | 百 |
| 144, 100 | whang | 佰 | whángi | 於佰 | whángsak | 佰分 | ||
| 288, 200 | áwhang | 皕 | áwhangi | 於皕 | äwhángsak | 皕分 | ||
| 1000, 6↋4 | fen | 千 | féni | 於千 | fénsak | 千分 | fen | 千 |
| 1728, 1000 | hóru | 仟 | hórui | 於仟 | hörúsak | 仟分 | ||
| 10000, 5954 | mun | 萬 | múni | 於萬 | múnsak | 萬分 | mun | 萬 |
| 20736, 10000 | phan | 贎 | pháni | 於贎 | phánsak | 贎分 |
The system for writing cases with radicals (部書法 - Büyhóbap/portioned writing method) predates the adoption of Hangul and Manchu and persists to this day. The Inanimate/Animate radical goes on top, the case radical next, and the number radical at the bottom. The old native Vangxarai numbers for one, two, three, and many were subsumed into these case endings, with the current numbers borrowed from an unknown substrate. The apparent violation of phonotactics in standalone long vowels can be explained by elision, there is no hiatus.
| ⿳⼤ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⼰ - Proximative | -e | -ki | -tha | -ii |
| ⾥ - Obviative | -a | -ke | -me | -ee |
| ⼿ - Dative | -ve | -ven | -men | -vii |
| ⾜ - Instrumental | -i | -vin | -min | -ving |
| ⽊ - Sociative | -si | -sin | -min | -sing |
| ⽋ - Genitive Alienable | -nga | -ngan | -ngen | -ngang |
| ⾊ - Genitive Inalienable | -he | -hen | -han | -heng |
| ⾛ - Ablative | -whe | -when | -whan | -wheng |
| ⼮ - Delative | -na | -nan | -nen | -nang |
| ⽕ - Elative | -ma | -man | -men | -mang |
| ⽣ - Initiative | -ka | -kan | -than | -kang |
| ⿳⾅ | 幺 - Singular | 冂 - Dual | 厽 - Trial | ⽻ - Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⼰ - Proximative | -o | -ku | -tha | -uu |
| ⾥ - Obviative | -a | -ko | -mo | -oo |
| ⼿ - Dative | -vo | -von | -mon | -vuu |
| ⾜ - Instrumental | -u | -vun | -mun | -vung |
| ⽊ - Sociative | -su | -sun | -mun | -sung |
| ⽋ - Genitive Alienable | -nga | -ngan | -ngon | -ngang |
| ⾊ - Genitive Inalienable | -ho | -hon | -han | -hong |
| ⾛ - Ablative | -who | -whon | -whan | -whong |
| ⼮ - Delative | -na | -nan | -non | -nang |
| ⽕ - Elative | -ma | -man | -mon | -mang |
| ⽣ - Initiative | -ka | -kan | -than | -kang |
Derivations are like classifiers except they are prefixes and are derivational in function and a good amount are taken from Classical Chinese function words. They can only be attached to nouns and verbs. Chinese origin dervations do not have vowel harmony.
| Derivation | Components | Function | Meaning | Prevalence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| xa | ⿰⺅싸 | noun/verb→noun | agent | common |
| ma | ⿰⼥마 | noun/verb→noun | patient | common |
| kim | ⿰⼥킴 | noun/verb→noun | recipient | common |
| ra | ⿸⼚라 | noun→verb | general related action | common |
| sim | ⿰⺡심 | noun→adjective | having the properties of | common |
| pem | ⿰⺡펨 | adjective→noun | something with these properties | common |
| yen | ⿰⽴젠 | verb→verb | volition | common |
| wim | ⿰⽴짋 | verb→verb | no volition | common |
| ttim | ⿰弓틺 | verb→verb | never | common |
| nhe | ⿰弓넿 | verb→verb | negative | vernacular |
| khi | ⿰⽐끼 | verb→noun | the act of | common |
| hu | 乎 | noun→noun | place | common |
| yho | 諸 | noun→noun | pluraliser | common |
| when | 焉 | noun→noun | on the Noun | literary |
| pot | 弗 | noun→noun | negative | common |
| tiia | 對 | noun→noun | against; opposite | common |
| hu/nhen | 乎/然 | noun→adverb | like thus | literary |
| whee | 爲 | noun→verb | to do; to become | common |
| yi | 以 | noun→verb | to use; to purpose for | common |
| nhen | 然 | verb→verb | indeed; intensifier | common |
| o | 於 | verb→verb | origin of | common |
| mot/po | 勿/不 | verb→verb | negative | common |
| yo | 與 | transitive verb→ditransitive verb | to Verb X to Y | common |
| xo | 所 | verb→noun | that which you Verb | common |
Classifiers are suffixes that are split into abstract and concrete categories. They are mostly native and use 形朝字 (Héngfovi/Hanzi-Hangul combined script), unless they are borrowed from Chinese. Earlier texts use a number of different characters to represent their phonetic sound. They can be attached to numerals, determiners, and nouns. They also can be incorporated into verbs standalone as object referents.
| Classifier | Components | Type | Function | Prevalence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| hin | ⿷⼕힌 | concrete | general | vernacular |
| sa | ⿷⼕사 | concrete | an indeterminate amount of something | vernacular |
| rin | ⿰⺅린 | concrete | honoured person | common |
| yhim | ⿰⺅침 | concrete | throng; group of people | common |
| pim | ⿹气핌 | concrete | short amount of time/distance; instant | common |
| khin | ⿹气낀 | concrete | a breath | literary |
| i | ⿹气이 | abstract | language | literary |
| kkeng | ⿵⺇켉 | concrete | table; flat surface | common |
| nan | ⿵⺇난 | concrete | sheet | common |
| i | ⿵⺇이 | abstract | piece of information | common |
| i | ⿰⻖이 | concrete | mouth; person | common |
| mhi | ⿰⻖밓 | concrete | mound of earth-like substance; packed mound | common |
| ⿰⻖씽 | concrete | mound of sheets; loose mound | common | |
| see | ⿰⻖셰 | abstract | sacred | literary |
| xang | ⿰쌍⺉ | concrete | handheld bladed object | common |
| fa | ⿰밯⺉ | concrete | tool | common |
| kkam | ⿰칾⺉ | abstract | insult; grievance | literary |
| ttan | ⿰탆⺉ | abstract | ruinous event | literary |
| ttan | ⿰⺯탆 | concrete | brocade; bundle of cloth | common |
| vem | ⿰⺯벫 | concrete | piece of clothing; outfit | common |
| see | ⿰⺯셰 | abstract | prayer flag; prayer; extreme petition | literary |
| e | ⿰⺨에 | concrete | beast | common |
| ywee | ⿰⺨쪠 | concrete | strap; switch | common |
| ywee | ⿱⺮쪠 | concrete | pole | common |
| heng | ⿱⺮헹 | concrete | cylinder; bottle | common |
| ywee | ⿱⾅쪠 | concrete | pillar; beam; load-bearing object | common |
| xi | ⿰⻟씨 | concrete | meal | common |
| me | ⿰⻟메 | concrete | bite | common |
| see | ⿰⻟셰 | concrete | offering | common |
| rem | ⿱⼧렘 | concrete | building | common |
| pem | ⿱⼧셰 | concrete | basket; container of solid | common |
| see | ⿱⼧셰 | concrete | household idol; object of worship | literary |
| yam | ⿶⼐잠 | concrete | jar; container of liquid | common |
| xii | ⿰씌⼘ | concrete | bundle of stick-like objects | common |
| theng | ⿰뗑⼘ | concrete | sheaf; bundle of crops | common |
| van | ⿰⼸밙 | concrete | bow; warrior | common |
| khem | ⿰⼸껨 | concrete | arrow; pointed stick-like object | common |
| theng | ⿱뗑⽥ | concrete | crop | common |
| tti | ⿱팋⽥ | concrete | seed; grain | common |
| thi | ⿰⺡띠 | concrete | drop | common |
| ywhee | ⿰⺡쪻 | concrete | splash; sprinkle | common |
| nghen | ⿰⺡겒 | concrete | body of water | common |
| i | ⿰⺡이 | concrete | drink; sip | common |
| pon | 本 | concrete | volume; book | common |
| fiek | 冊 | concrete | volumes of books | common |
| doo | 柱 | concrete | incense | common |
| ka | 家 | concrete | household | common |
Some classifiers are prefixes or circumfixes. Circumfixes are treated like prefixes in orthography. When incorporated into a verb, the circumfix combines into a single affix.
| Classifier | Components | Manner | Type | Function | Prevalence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ka-n | ⿴⼞칸 | circumfix | abstract | real thing; worthy person | common |
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify completely. The adjective stem usually consists of a classifier. They are usually treated as nouns. Uncompounded adjectives usually appear when referring to a pronoun in the verb or emphasising a particular aspect of a referent in the verb.
| Classifier | Components | Function |
|---|---|---|
| a | ⿰⽐아 | neutral adjective |
| fa | ⿰⽐밯 | concrete comparative adjective |
| yha | ⿰⽐차 | abstract comparative adjective |
| tta | ⿰⽐탛 | concrete superlative adjective |
| wan | ⿰⽐잕 | abstract superlative adjective |
Adjectives have a specific order which they must appear in, with concrete adjectives coming before abstract adjectives, and neutral adjectives occurring closest to the noun. The macro-order (including nouns and verbs) is as follows from farthest to closest:
The possessives make use of the two genitive cases to signify a possessor. Partitive possession can occur if a numeral is affixed to the unpronounced inanimate dummy ⼛ with genitive alienable case e.g. three of my friends. First person possessives can use the pronoun 吾, while any other possessives must use nouns in the third person regardless, even if addressing someone directly.
Further clarifies meaning of sentences and provides reading aid. Draws from Classical Chinese empty words with Middle Chinese pronunciation. A standalone word that is placed at the end of a sentence.
| Particle | Character | Function |
|---|---|---|
| hu | 乎 | interrogative; yes/no |
| po | 否 | contrastive interrogative; 'or not?' |
| fiie | 哉 | exclamatory interrogative; 'how?' |
| ni | 而 | exclamation; finality |
| yha | 者 | topic marker |
| yaa | 也 | explanatory marker |
The order in which sentence arguments must follow. The highest ranking argument is the closest to the verb.
Växárai society has a strict caste system which arose out of a mixed society of agriculture and raiding. The castes have an honourific and a full name. There are many sub-castes as well which may fall under the broader honourific.
| Sub-Caste | Caste | Honourific | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n/a | 帝 | tei | téi | emperor: past rulers; gods; mythical beasts; Chinese emperor |
| 聖駕 | 帝 | yhengkaa | téi | current ruler |
| 帝家 | 王 | hong | téika | royal family |
| 王⿰⺅린 | 王 | hong | hóngrun | king: viceroys; barbarian kings |
| 聖; 嗑⿰⻖셰 | 臣 | yheng; vin | hámsee | twelve sacreds: royal priests |
| 大臣 | 臣 | vin | dáivin | great aristocrat: great lords |
| 下臣 | 臣 | vin | whaavin | lesser aristocrat: lesser lords; noble generals |
| 士 | 士 | vi | khe | greater knight: career generals |
| 士; ⿰⺅싸戰 | 士 | vi | xáyhen | lesser knight: career soldiers |
| 官⿰⻖셰 | 官 | kan | kánsee | sacred magistrate: priests |
| 官⿰⺅린 | 官 | kan | kánrin | magistrate: high ranking officials |
| 君⿰⺅린 | 官 | kan | kúnrun | gentleman: gentry |
| 吏⿰⺅린 | 吏 | ri | rírin | clerk: low ranking officials |
| ⿰⺅싸學⿰⻖셰 | 吏 | ri | xáneesee | sacred learner: priest acolytes |
| ⿰⺅싸學 | 吏 | ri | xánee | learner: learned men |
| 諸民 | 民 | min | yhómin | commoners: serfs; fishermen |
| ⿰⺅싸作 | 民 | min | xávak | maker: eminent artisans |
| 敝⿰⻖이 | 敝 | biie | biiei | tattered person: artisans; artisan slaves |
| 卑⿰⻖이 | 卑 | pee | peei | inferior person: merchants |
| 奴⿰⺨에 | 奴 | nu | núe | slave beast: slaves; butchers; trash collectors; untouchables; twelve bad occupations of Buddhism |
Within the castes, the five relationships (五倫/Ngúrun) of Confucianism are followed. These are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Females younger than the mother are treated equally as the lowest ranked. The eldest relations are highest ranked, with the father's side taking precedence over the mother's. Ruler to ruled applies in social and economic hierarchy within the castes.
Further down the hierarchy are animals and inanimate objects, which are listed in order below, with abstract concepts higher ranked than concrete concepts in the classification.
| Class | Honourific | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 道 | 寶 | duu | relating to religion and philosophy |
| 衛 | 寶 | whiia | beast of burden; pet |
| 畜 | 寶 | hok | livestock |
| 虓 | 寶 | whuu | wild game |
| 蠹 | n/a | tu | vermin etc. |
| 寶 | 寶 | puu | natural treasure; e.g. gold/jewels |
| 智 | 大 | diie | tool/building of knowledge; e.g. books/library |
| 錢 | 大 | ven | money; relating to wealth |
| 毓 | 大 | yok | essential agricultural tool; relating to agriculture |
| 弋 | 大 | yik | hunting tool |
| 鋒 | n/a | phong | weapon |
| 具 | n/a | goo | general tool |
| 居 | 大 | ki | inhabited/inhabitable location; e.g. house/farm |
| 洋 | 大 | yang | body of water |
| 空 | n/a | khung | wasteland; undesirable/dangerous location |
| 物 | n/a | mot | general materials etc. |
| 溷 | 殮 | hon | unclean tool/body part; relating to butchering/excreta/slavery/death; twelve bad occupations of Buddhism |
Pronouns can only be used as subjects and have only three persons and one proximative case. Chinese pronouns can also be used in certain contexts. Pro-drop can occur when the subject can be inferred.
| Pronoun | Character | Person | Usage | Origin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| sang | 郚 | 1 | intimate; archaic | Middle Växárai |
| sángkkam | 郚⿰칾⺉ | 1 | polite; self-deprecatory | Middle Växárai |
| ging | 臣 | 1 | formal; in the presence of superiors | Old Chinese |
| rái | 弟 | 1 | formal; younger brother or cousin to elder brother or cousin | Old Chinese |
| xem | 妾 | 1 | formal; wife to husband | Old Chinese |
| nghái | 我 | 1 | general; topic | Old Chinese |
| nga | 吾 | 1 | possessive | Old Chinese |
| ram | 朕 | 1 | royal 'we' | Old Chinese |
| phi | 籋 | 2 | intimate; archaic | Middle Växárai |
| phírin | 籋⿰⺅린 | 2 | polite; courtesy | Middle Växárai |
| phíwhaa | 籋下 | 2 | extremely polite | Middle Växárai |
| mhang | 兄 | 2 | formal; to elder brother or cousin | Old Chinese |
| khárang | 卿 | 2 | formal; husband to wife | Old Chinese |
| páfe | 夫子 | 2 | formal; disciple to teacher | Old Chinese |
| suu | 叟 | 2 | formal; addressing elder man | Old Chinese |
| kárun | 君 | 2 | addressing superior or overseer | Old Chinese |
| fát | 子 | 2 | addressing nobility | Old Chinese |
| khang | 王 | 2 | addressing 王 caste | Old Chinese |
| bígara | 陛下 | 2 | addressing 帝 caste | Old Chinese |
| niet | 爾 | 2 | general | Old Chinese |
| miia | 女 | 2 | deprecatory | Proto-Hmong-Mien |
| kása | 歫 | 3.AN | intimate; archaic | Middle Växárai |
| yon | 芝 | 3.INAN | inanimate | Middle Växárai |
| yhi | 之 | 3 | general | Middle Chinese |
| pái | 彼 | 3 | general; emphatic | Old Chinese |
| niiana | 蹷 | 3 | deprecatory | Proto-Hmong-Mien |
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